42 results
Review of the Ordovician pelagic trilobite Ellipsotaphrus (Cyclopygoidea, Ellipsotaphridae) and its allies, with new discoveries from Girvan, Ayrshire
- J. Keith INGHAM, Richard A. FORTEY
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- Journal:
- Earth and Environmental Science Transactions of The Royal Society of Edinburgh / Volume 113 / Issue 4 / December 2022
- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 25 January 2023, pp. 313-336
- Print publication:
- December 2022
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Following Fortey and Owens (1987), the Ordovician trilobite taxon Ellipsotaphrinae is established as valid, but is argued to have full family status within the Cyclopygoidea. It encompasses the existing genera Ellipsotaphrus, Girvanopyge Gamops and Circulocrania together with two new genera proposed herein, Arisemolobes and Synaptotaphrus. Typical ellipsotaphrid genera have a totally circumscribed ‘foreglabella’, incorporating extended S1 furrows and a portion of the occipital furrow. The known range of the family is Floian to Katian. Genera are conservative in form throughout their ranges and are widespread. All occur only in deeper water sediments with palaeooceanic access. Ellipsotaphrus monophthalmus and Ellipsotaphrus infaustus are reassessed and Ellipsotaphrus zhongguoensis, from the Katian of China, is regarded as a junior synonym of the Katian Girvan species Ellipsotaphrus pumilio. Girvanopyge [ = Cremastoglottos; Nanlingia; Waldminia] is demonstrated, partly on the basis of new material from the Katian of Girvan, to be an ellipsotaphrid cyclopygoid and not to have a close affinity to the remopleuridids, as had been clained. Girvanopyge barrandei, from the Katian of the Czech Republic, is synonymised with Girvanopyge caudata from China. Gamops is revived for forms showing a relationship to both Girvanopyge and Ellipsotaphrus. It encompasses three Czech species including the Dapingian Gamops triangulatus, which probably also occurs in correlative strata in South Wales. The systematic treatment is supported by new material from the Upper Ordovician of the Girvan district, and the relevant geology of this area is described in detail. New species proposed are: Arisemolobes zhouzhiyii, Synaptotaphrus oarion and Circulocrania ? dichaulax.
4 - French in fifteenth-century England: what linguistic choices?
- Anne Curry, Rémy Ambühl
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- A Soldiers' Chronicle of the Hundred Years War
- Published by:
- Boydell & Brewer
- Published online:
- 26 May 2022
- Print publication:
- 04 January 2022, pp 103-120
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The M 9 chronicle is an intriguing text, not least because it was written in French for an English recipient at a time when the routine use of French among England's literate population was dying out. In this contribution to the present volume, I explore what options were available to someone wishing to write a French text in England in the fifteenth century, and examine the linguistic features of the M 9 chronicle against that background. It will be shown how the varieties of French existing in that period differed from each other, reviewing the main features of the late medieval French language as used on the continent, and comparing them with those of the insular variety of French traditionally known as Anglo-Norman.
The later years of Anglo-Norman have benefited from greatly increased research attention since the millennium. A rough consensus has emerged that it remained ‘a perfectly serviceable variety of medieval French’, though a highly distinctive one in various linguistic respects, until its demise in the fifteenth century. In conventional textbook presentations, continental French, sometimes labelled ‘Parisian’, is taken as representing a prestige norm from which the French of England deviated in various ways. As will be seen, continental French was far from being uniform, but in any event by the thirteenth century at the latest Anglo-Norman was clearly idiosyncratic in its spelling and grammar. When it finally died out is debatable: records were still being kept in this form by some administrators in the 1420s and occasionally even beyond. However, it is safe to say that outside the law courts little use was still being made of insular French as a distinct variety by the 1450s, when the M 9 chronicle was composed.
The M 9 chronicle is in fact ‘the only known example of a chronicle of the fifteenth-century phase of the [Hundred Years] war written in England in French’. Its singularity in that respect was explained by McFarlane as due to the fact that the scribe responsible for composing the chronicle, Luket Nantron, was a Frenchman. In this current volume, an argument has been made for the various contributions of all those involved: Basset, Hanson and Worcester.
Lexical borrowing in the Middle English period: a multi-domain analysis of semantic outcomes
- LOUISE SYLVESTER, MEGAN TIDDEMAN, RICHARD INGHAM
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- Journal:
- English Language & Linguistics / Volume 26 / Issue 2 / June 2022
- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 11 June 2021, pp. 237-261
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The Middle English period is well known as one of widespread lexical borrowing from French and Latin, and scholarly accounts traditionally assume that this influx of loanwords caused many native terms to shift in sense or to drop out of use entirely. The study analyses an extensive dataset, tracking patterns in lexical retention, replacement and semantic change, and comparing long-term outcomes for both native and non-native words. Our results challenge the conventional view of competition between existing terms and foreign incomers. They show that there were far fewer instances of relexification, and far more of synonymy, during the Middle English period than might have been expected. When retention rates for words first attested between 1100 and 1500 are compared, it is loanwords, not native terms, which are more likely to become obsolete at any point up to the nineteenth century. Furthermore, proportions of outcomes involving narrowing and broadening (often considered common outcomes following the arrival of a co-hyponym in a semantic space) were low in the Middle English period, regardless of language of origin.
7 - Verb Use in Charles d’Orléans’ English
- Edited by R. D. Perry, Mary-Jo Arn
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- Book:
- Charles d’Orléans' English Aesthetic
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- Boydell & Brewer
- Published online:
- 14 October 2020
- Print publication:
- 18 September 2020, pp 169-188
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The idiosyncrasies long noted in Charles d’Orléans’ English verse pose questions of linguistic interest, not least whether they should be viewed in terms of incomplete second-language learning, or else as stylistic innovation. This issue is considered here within an interpretive framework of L2 (second language) acquisition, ultimate attainment, and residual error. The claim by Antonella Sorace and others that in high proficiency L2 syntax is mainly vulnerable at interfaces with discourse and semantics is taken as a starting point of an investigation of the poet's use of verbs. It is first shown that Charles's frequent inversion of auxiliary and main verbs in auxiliated clauses does not engage with the semantics of the clause, but is better seen as influenced by medieval French Stylistic Fronting. The chapter then turns to verb complementation. Charles's use of cause as a bare-infinitive taking auxiliary, otherwise unattested in MED, is discussed here, as are numerous other verb argument structure peculiarities with items such as prevail, repair, lust, yield, comfort, ravish, weep, speak, etc.
A further question is whether Charles's French-speaking interlocutors might have used with him a variety influenced by Anglo-Norman, still in use in the early fifteenth century. This possibility is discussed in connection with the poet's lexical imports into English, and his prolific use of verbal prefixation: some unique attestations in Fortunes Stabilnes are prefixed with a- or en-/in-, the two most productive aspectual verbal prefixes in later insular French.
Background to the Study
Studies of L2 acquisition usually acknowledge what is commonly cited as a ‘fundamental difference’ between acquiring a mother tongue and a second language: first-language acquisition normally results in the successful acquisition of the phonological and grammatical structures and the core vocabulary of the child's home variety. In L2 acquisition, however, especially when it takes place after childhood, the usual outcome is somewhat less than full mastery: even in communicatively competent L2 users, typically some traces of a foreign accent and foreign-sounding turns of phrase will be found. This imperfect acquisition outcome in L2 is of course a generalisation over learners in very diverse settings and with very different aptitudes and motivation to learn another language. In modern times, exceptional cases are known, among them Joseph Conrad, who acquired English sufficiently well to be able to write highly regarded novels in that language.
16 - The Public and the Relational: the Collaborative Practices of the Inclusive Archive of Learning Disability History
- Edited by Simon Popple, University of Leeds, Andrew Prescott, University of Glasgow, Daniel Mutibwa, University of Nottingham
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- Book:
- Communities, Archives and New Collaborative Practices
- Published by:
- Bristol University Press
- Published online:
- 03 March 2021
- Print publication:
- 26 February 2020, pp 219-234
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Q: Why is it important that people with learning disabilities tell their stories?
A: I think it's to let other people know what's happened to them and make it aware of people so that it doesn't happen. People doesn't go around hurting other people, it's not fair. So I think if they write their story it makes people aware, because years ago it wasn't aware of people with learning disability because they were put away. So now it's time for people with learning disability to write their story and to let other people know. (Cooper, 2008)
Mabel Cooper, former resident St Lawrence's Hospital, self-advocate, broadcaster and founder member of the Open University's Social History of Learning Disability Group.
This book's title – Communities, Archives and New Collaborative Practices – raises the question of who or what is collaborating. The reading of the title most immediately available might be that the collaboration is between communities and those that work in archives. Yet we want to focus on another type of collaboration here, one that is equally crucial in developing new collaborative practices for archives. In a recent action research project to develop an Inclusive Archive of Learning Disability History, it became clear that in seeking to produce an archive we needed to conceive of collaboration not only in terms of people but also in terms of a collaboration between different political theories. In developing the Inclusive Archive, we recognised that we needed to seek a collaborative relationship between the political ideas derived from public political logics – public service, public sphere, ‘on behalf of the public’ and for posterity – and those that derive from relational and personal-centred politics. While there was constant debate in the team with some of us favouring one set of political logic and some the other, we realised that for an archive to be an archive, and for it to be an inclusive one, we needed to develop an approach to archival practice that held both the public and the relational political traditions in dialogue.
The diffusion of higher-status lexis in medieval England: the role of the clergy
- RICHARD INGHAM
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- Journal:
- English Language & Linguistics / Volume 22 / Issue 2 / July 2018
- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 04 July 2018, pp. 207-224
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For Rothwell (1998: 156) ‘words of ultimately French origin became part of the lexis of English as a result of the myriad daily contacts between Anglo-French and Middle English in the minds and under the pens of a whole literate class’. Although such contact interfaces between Francophone and Anglophone speakers clearly must have existed, not enough is known as to the means by which French-origin lexis was borrowed and diffused. I argue that a principal agency of contact-induced lexical change in Middle English was the clergy in their everyday role of spiritual guidance, whether or not they themselves composed religious texts. French loans in works of spiritual guidance are known to be common from the thirteenth-century Ancrene Wisse onwards (Trotter 2003a). According to contemporaneous sources, English clerics received a Francophone-medium school education (Orme 1973), which would have familiarised them with the French vocabulary used in religious instruction in chantry schools and beyond.
The various manuscripts of the Cursor Mundi, a work of lay religious instruction probably composed around 1300, also offer a revealing window on the process of lexical innovation and replacement instigated by the clergy. An analysis of variant lexical forms, native and French-origin, found in the first 10,000 lines of this work shows that the latter would go on to replace native items the majority of the time. The loss of many native variants, e.g. niþ, mensk and þole, and their replacement, respectively, by envy, honour and suffer, can be attributed to the role played by the clergy in diffusing French-origin items in the domains of discourse they dominated. Rather than merely reflecting the pre-existing lexical knowledge of monolingual English speakers, the clergy's use of such items initially introduced and then maintained French-origin lexemes in at least the receptive competence of such speakers. Their regular and widespread contact with the population at large would have enabled the take-up of lexical innovation via the spoken medium, thus motivating the use observed in homiletic and devotional written texts of extensive French-origin lexis.
Special issue on mechanisms of French contact influence in Middle English: diffusion and maintenance
- OLGA TIMOFEEVA, RICHARD INGHAM
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- Journal:
- English Language & Linguistics / Volume 22 / Issue 2 / July 2018
- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 04 July 2018, pp. 197-205
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Recent years have seen a spate of publications that attempt to recontextualise the history of English in contact-linguistic (Miller 2012; Lutz 2013; Durkin 2014) and sociolinguistic terms (Millar 2012), and conversely to confront previous descriptions of contact phenomena with new data and theoretical insights available from situations of language shift and substratum influence (Filppula, Klemola & Paulasto 2008; Vennemann 2011), extensive bilingualism (Schendl & Wright 2011), language acquisition (Ingham 2012) and contact-induced grammaticalisation (Timofeeva 2010). Coupled with advances in our understanding of contact- and acquisition-induced language change (Heine & Kuteva 2005; Jarvis & Pavlenko 2008), and of the role of contact in the varieties of English around the world (Schreier & Hundt 2013), there is a clear need in this area of historical research for scholars to reinvestigate earlier stages of English as a contact language.
Topic, Focus and null subjects in Old French
- Richard Ingham
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- Journal:
- Canadian Journal of Linguistics/Revue canadienne de linguistique / Volume 63 / Issue 2 / June 2018
- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 09 January 2018, pp. 242-263
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Old French subject pronouns (Spro) were omissible if postverbal (Foulet 1928), but not freely so (Vance 1997, Zimmermann 2014). This article addresses their partial omissibility in discourse-syntax terms, following work on partial null subject languages by Holmberg and Nikanne (2002) and Modesto (2008). An observational study of dialogic responses in 13th century prose romances is first reported, finding strong indications of covariation between the Topic/Focus status of an initial non-subject constituent and the expression/omission of post-verbal Spro. A quantitative investigation, in such texts, of preposed discourse-linked anaphoric constituents and preposed intensifiers, taken as diagnostic of Topichood and Focushood respectively, confirmed this analysis. We take null Spro to be available (i) when a null Topic operator targets left-peripheral TopicP, and (ii) with a left-peripheral Focused expression. When a discourse-linked non-subject constituent occupies TopicP, however, Spro must be overt.
7 - Middle English Borrowing from French: Nouns and Verbs of Interpersonal Cognition in the Early South English Legendary
- Edited by Thelma Fenster, Fordham University, New York, Carolyn P. Collette, Mount Holyoke College, Massachusetts
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- Book:
- The French of Medieval England
- Published by:
- Boydell & Brewer
- Published online:
- 12 August 2020
- Print publication:
- 01 May 2017, pp 128-139
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Summary
The nature and scope of language use in mediaeval England were for a long time framed by the ‘bounded perceptions’ that arise when compartmentalised academic disciplines shape complex realities into pedagogically manageable narratives. Framed through the disciplinary lens of English, the French of medieval England tends to be cast in the role of the protagonist to be ousted from the field, after having passed on some language traits to Middle English, the victor in the supposed linguistic contest. Seen in a French disciplinary frame, the French of England is no more than an eccentric offshoot which withered and died after a short-lived period of moderate literary interest that contributed to the francophone authorial canon only the reassuringly surnamed Marie ‘de France’.
In recent decades a number of researchers in the UK and elsewhere have established a research agenda that allows new perspectives to be taken. It has become possible to envisage the linguistic landscape of medieval England as one in which languages, and the literary production in them, co-existed and interacted so closely that to carve out boundaries around them now seems not just artificial but actually damaging to the character of the objects of study. Jocelyn Wogan-Browne's work stands out for encouraging the use of French as a medium for writing in England to be seen as an integral part of the literary and spiritual context of the time, and the present article pursues one such aspect of the converging perspectives that her research and that of others has made possible: the integration of French lexis with English in the context of religious writing. In particular, we explore what the language of religious writing for a popular audience can reveal about the diffusion of French vocabulary in English, at a point well before the so-called ‘Frenchified’ vocabulary of Gower and Chaucer makes itself felt at the end of the fourteenth century.
The status of French in medieval England has undergone substantial reassessment in this century. It has been shown by several authors that insular French survived as a viable multi-genre communicative medium well into the fourteenth century.
Contributors
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- By Edna Astbury-Ward, Toni Belfield, Joanna Brien, Sharon Cameron, Michael Carrette, Joyce Chai, Kelly Cleland, Rodica Comendant, Kelly R. Culwell, Caroline de Costa, James Drife, Joanna N. Erdman, Kristina Gemzell-Danielsson, Caitlin Gerdts, Daniel Grossman, Lisa Hallgarten, John Harris, Oskari Heikinheimo, Pak Chung Ho, Stelian Hodorogea, Roger Ingham, Helgi Johannsson, Anneli Kero, Helena Kopp Kallner, Pekka Lähteenmäki, Patricia A. Lohr, Richard Lyus, Wendy Macdowall, Sharon Moses, Emeka Oloto, Kate Paterson, Kerry Petersen, Sadie Regmi, Regina-Maria Renner, Pascale Roblin, Stephen C. Robson, Sam Rowlands, Irina Sagaidac, Joanna Speedie, Satu Suhonen, James Trussell, Kaye Wellings, Ellen Wiebe
- Edited by Sam Rowlands
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- Book:
- Abortion Care
- Published online:
- 05 September 2014
- Print publication:
- 28 August 2014, pp vii-x
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- By Rose Teteki Abbey, K. C. Abraham, David Tuesday Adamo, LeRoy H. Aden, Efrain Agosto, Victor Aguilan, Gillian T. W. Ahlgren, Charanjit Kaur AjitSingh, Dorothy B E A Akoto, Giuseppe Alberigo, Daniel E. Albrecht, Ruth Albrecht, Daniel O. Aleshire, Urs Altermatt, Anand Amaladass, Michael Amaladoss, James N. Amanze, Lesley G. Anderson, Thomas C. Anderson, Victor Anderson, Hope S. Antone, María Pilar Aquino, Paula Arai, Victorio Araya Guillén, S. Wesley Ariarajah, Ellen T. Armour, Brett Gregory Armstrong, Atsuhiro Asano, Naim Stifan Ateek, Mahmoud Ayoub, John Alembillah Azumah, Mercedes L. García Bachmann, Irena Backus, J. Wayne Baker, Mieke Bal, Lewis V. Baldwin, William Barbieri, António Barbosa da Silva, David Basinger, Bolaji Olukemi Bateye, Oswald Bayer, Daniel H. Bays, Rosalie Beck, Nancy Elizabeth Bedford, Guy-Thomas Bedouelle, Chorbishop Seely Beggiani, Wolfgang Behringer, Christopher M. Bellitto, Byard Bennett, Harold V. Bennett, Teresa Berger, Miguel A. Bernad, Henley Bernard, Alan E. Bernstein, Jon L. Berquist, Johannes Beutler, Ana María Bidegain, Matthew P. Binkewicz, Jennifer Bird, Joseph Blenkinsopp, Dmytro Bondarenko, Paulo Bonfatti, Riet en Pim Bons-Storm, Jessica A. Boon, Marcus J. Borg, Mark Bosco, Peter C. Bouteneff, François Bovon, William D. Bowman, Paul S. Boyer, David Brakke, Richard E. Brantley, Marcus Braybrooke, Ian Breward, Ênio José da Costa Brito, Jewel Spears Brooker, Johannes Brosseder, Nicholas Canfield Read Brown, Robert F. Brown, Pamela K. Brubaker, Walter Brueggemann, Bishop Colin O. Buchanan, Stanley M. Burgess, Amy Nelson Burnett, J. Patout Burns, David B. Burrell, David Buttrick, James P. Byrd, Lavinia Byrne, Gerado Caetano, Marcos Caldas, Alkiviadis Calivas, William J. Callahan, Salvatore Calomino, Euan K. Cameron, William S. Campbell, Marcelo Ayres Camurça, Daniel F. Caner, Paul E. Capetz, Carlos F. Cardoza-Orlandi, Patrick W. Carey, Barbara Carvill, Hal Cauthron, Subhadra Mitra Channa, Mark D. Chapman, James H. Charlesworth, Kenneth R. Chase, Chen Zemin, Luciano Chianeque, Philip Chia Phin Yin, Francisca H. Chimhanda, Daniel Chiquete, John T. Chirban, Soobin Choi, Robert Choquette, Mita Choudhury, Gerald Christianson, John Chryssavgis, Sejong Chun, Esther Chung-Kim, Charles M. A. Clark, Elizabeth A. Clark, Sathianathan Clarke, Fred Cloud, John B. Cobb, W. Owen Cole, John A Coleman, John J. Collins, Sylvia Collins-Mayo, Paul K. Conkin, Beth A. Conklin, Sean Connolly, Demetrios J. Constantelos, Michael A. Conway, Paula M. Cooey, Austin Cooper, Michael L. Cooper-White, Pamela Cooper-White, L. William Countryman, Sérgio Coutinho, Pamela Couture, Shannon Craigo-Snell, James L. Crenshaw, David Crowner, Humberto Horacio Cucchetti, Lawrence S. Cunningham, Elizabeth Mason Currier, Emmanuel Cutrone, Mary L. Daniel, David D. Daniels, Robert Darden, Rolf Darge, Isaiah Dau, Jeffry C. Davis, Jane Dawson, Valentin Dedji, John W. de Gruchy, Paul DeHart, Wendy J. Deichmann Edwards, Miguel A. De La Torre, George E. Demacopoulos, Thomas de Mayo, Leah DeVun, Beatriz de Vasconcellos Dias, Dennis C. Dickerson, John M. Dillon, Luis Miguel Donatello, Igor Dorfmann-Lazarev, Susanna Drake, Jonathan A. Draper, N. Dreher Martin, Otto Dreydoppel, Angelyn Dries, A. J. Droge, Francis X. D'Sa, Marilyn Dunn, Nicole Wilkinson Duran, Rifaat Ebied, Mark J. Edwards, William H. Edwards, Leonard H. Ehrlich, Nancy L. Eiesland, Martin Elbel, J. Harold Ellens, Stephen Ellingson, Marvin M. Ellison, Robert Ellsberg, Jean Bethke Elshtain, Eldon Jay Epp, Peter C. Erb, Tassilo Erhardt, Maria Erling, Noel Leo Erskine, Gillian R. Evans, Virginia Fabella, Michael A. Fahey, Edward Farley, Margaret A. Farley, Wendy Farley, Robert Fastiggi, Seena Fazel, Duncan S. Ferguson, Helwar Figueroa, Paul Corby Finney, Kyriaki Karidoyanes FitzGerald, Thomas E. FitzGerald, John R. Fitzmier, Marie Therese Flanagan, Sabina Flanagan, Claude Flipo, Ronald B. Flowers, Carole Fontaine, David Ford, Mary Ford, Stephanie A. Ford, Jim Forest, William Franke, Robert M. Franklin, Ruth Franzén, Edward H. Friedman, Samuel Frouisou, Lorelei F. Fuchs, Jojo M. Fung, Inger Furseth, Richard R. Gaillardetz, Brandon Gallaher, China Galland, Mark Galli, Ismael García, Tharscisse Gatwa, Jean-Marie Gaudeul, Luis María Gavilanes del Castillo, Pavel L. Gavrilyuk, Volney P. Gay, Metropolitan Athanasios Geevargis, Kondothra M. George, Mary Gerhart, Simon Gikandi, Maurice Gilbert, Michael J. Gillgannon, Verónica Giménez Beliveau, Terryl Givens, Beth Glazier-McDonald, Philip Gleason, Menghun Goh, Brian Golding, Bishop Hilario M. Gomez, Michelle A. Gonzalez, Donald K. Gorrell, Roy Gottfried, Tamara Grdzelidze, Joel B. Green, Niels Henrik Gregersen, Cristina Grenholm, Herbert Griffiths, Eric W. Gritsch, Erich S. Gruen, Christoffer H. Grundmann, Paul H. Gundani, Jon P. Gunnemann, Petre Guran, Vidar L. Haanes, Jeremiah M. Hackett, Getatchew Haile, Douglas John Hall, Nicholas Hammond, Daphne Hampson, Jehu J. Hanciles, Barry Hankins, Jennifer Haraguchi, Stanley S. Harakas, Anthony John Harding, Conrad L. Harkins, J. William Harmless, Marjory Harper, Amir Harrak, Joel F. Harrington, Mark W. Harris, Susan Ashbrook Harvey, Van A. Harvey, R. Chris Hassel, Jione Havea, Daniel Hawk, Diana L. Hayes, Leslie Hayes, Priscilla Hayner, S. Mark Heim, Simo Heininen, Richard P. Heitzenrater, Eila Helander, David Hempton, Scott H. Hendrix, Jan-Olav Henriksen, Gina Hens-Piazza, Carter Heyward, Nicholas J. Higham, David Hilliard, Norman A. Hjelm, Peter C. Hodgson, Arthur Holder, M. Jan Holton, Dwight N. Hopkins, Ronnie Po-chia Hsia, Po-Ho Huang, James Hudnut-Beumler, Jennifer S. Hughes, Leonard M. Hummel, Mary E. Hunt, Laennec Hurbon, Mark Hutchinson, Susan E. Hylen, Mary Beth Ingham, H. Larry Ingle, Dale T. Irvin, Jon Isaak, Paul John Isaak, Ada María Isasi-Díaz, Hans Raun Iversen, Margaret C. Jacob, Arthur James, Maria Jansdotter-Samuelsson, David Jasper, Werner G. Jeanrond, Renée Jeffery, David Lyle Jeffrey, Theodore W. Jennings, David H. Jensen, Robin Margaret Jensen, David Jobling, Dale A. Johnson, Elizabeth A. Johnson, Maxwell E. Johnson, Sarah Johnson, Mark D. Johnston, F. Stanley Jones, James William Jones, John R. Jones, Alissa Jones Nelson, Inge Jonsson, Jan Joosten, Elizabeth Judd, Mulambya Peggy Kabonde, Robert Kaggwa, Sylvester Kahakwa, Isaac Kalimi, Ogbu U. Kalu, Eunice Kamaara, Wayne C. Kannaday, Musimbi Kanyoro, Veli-Matti Kärkkäinen, Frank Kaufmann, Léon Nguapitshi Kayongo, Richard Kearney, Alice A. Keefe, Ralph Keen, Catherine Keller, Anthony J. Kelly, Karen Kennelly, Kathi Lynn Kern, Fergus Kerr, Edward Kessler, George Kilcourse, Heup Young Kim, Kim Sung-Hae, Kim Yong-Bock, Kim Yung Suk, Richard King, Thomas M. King, Robert M. Kingdon, Ross Kinsler, Hans G. Kippenberg, Cheryl A. Kirk-Duggan, Clifton Kirkpatrick, Leonid Kishkovsky, Nadieszda Kizenko, Jeffrey Klaiber, Hans-Josef Klauck, Sidney Knight, Samuel Kobia, Robert Kolb, Karla Ann Koll, Heikki Kotila, Donald Kraybill, Philip D. W. Krey, Yves Krumenacker, Jeffrey Kah-Jin Kuan, Simanga R. Kumalo, Peter Kuzmic, Simon Shui-Man Kwan, Kwok Pui-lan, André LaCocque, Stephen E. Lahey, John Tsz Pang Lai, Emiel Lamberts, Armando Lampe, Craig Lampe, Beverly J. Lanzetta, Eve LaPlante, Lizette Larson-Miller, Ariel Bybee Laughton, Leonard Lawlor, Bentley Layton, Robin A. Leaver, Karen Lebacqz, Archie Chi Chung Lee, Marilyn J. Legge, Hervé LeGrand, D. L. LeMahieu, Raymond Lemieux, Bill J. Leonard, Ellen M. Leonard, Outi Leppä, Jean Lesaulnier, Nantawan Boonprasat Lewis, Henrietta Leyser, Alexei Lidov, Bernard Lightman, Paul Chang-Ha Lim, Carter Lindberg, Mark R. Lindsay, James R. Linville, James C. Livingston, Ann Loades, David Loades, Jean-Claude Loba-Mkole, Lo Lung Kwong, Wati Longchar, Eleazar López, David W. Lotz, Andrew Louth, Robin W. Lovin, William Luis, Frank D. Macchia, Diarmaid N. J. MacCulloch, Kirk R. MacGregor, Marjory A. MacLean, Donald MacLeod, Tomas S. Maddela, Inge Mager, Laurenti Magesa, David G. Maillu, Fortunato Mallimaci, Philip Mamalakis, Kä Mana, Ukachukwu Chris Manus, Herbert Robinson Marbury, Reuel Norman Marigza, Jacqueline Mariña, Antti Marjanen, Luiz C. L. Marques, Madipoane Masenya (ngwan'a Mphahlele), Caleb J. D. Maskell, Steve Mason, Thomas Massaro, Fernando Matamoros Ponce, András Máté-Tóth, Odair Pedroso Mateus, Dinis Matsolo, Fumitaka Matsuoka, John D'Arcy May, Yelena Mazour-Matusevich, Theodore Mbazumutima, John S. McClure, Christian McConnell, Lee Martin McDonald, Gary B. McGee, Thomas McGowan, Alister E. McGrath, Richard J. McGregor, John A. McGuckin, Maud Burnett McInerney, Elsie Anne McKee, Mary B. McKinley, James F. McMillan, Ernan McMullin, Kathleen E. McVey, M. Douglas Meeks, Monica Jyotsna Melanchthon, Ilie Melniciuc-Puica, Everett Mendoza, Raymond A. Mentzer, William W. Menzies, Ina Merdjanova, Franziska Metzger, Constant J. Mews, Marvin Meyer, Carol Meyers, Vasile Mihoc, Gunner Bjerg Mikkelsen, Maria Inêz de Castro Millen, Clyde Lee Miller, Bonnie J. Miller-McLemore, Alexander Mirkovic, Paul Misner, Nozomu Miyahira, R. W. L. Moberly, Gerald Moede, Aloo Osotsi Mojola, Sunanda Mongia, Rebeca Montemayor, James Moore, Roger E. Moore, Craig E. Morrison O.Carm, Jeffry H. Morrison, Keith Morrison, Wilson J. Moses, Tefetso Henry Mothibe, Mokgethi Motlhabi, Fulata Moyo, Henry Mugabe, Jesse Ndwiga Kanyua Mugambi, Peggy Mulambya-Kabonde, Robert Bruce Mullin, Pamela Mullins Reaves, Saskia Murk Jansen, Heleen L. Murre-Van den Berg, Augustine Musopole, Isaac M. T. Mwase, Philomena Mwaura, Cecilia Nahnfeldt, Anne Nasimiyu Wasike, Carmiña Navia Velasco, Thulani Ndlazi, Alexander Negrov, James B. Nelson, David G. Newcombe, Carol Newsom, Helen J. 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List of Abbreviations
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List of Contributors
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Contents
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Acknowledgements
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1 - Anglo-Norman: New Themes, New Contexts
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Summary
Editor's Introduction
Standard accounts of the Anglo-Norman language still represent it as an emigrant language that flourished in England for a hundred years or so, and thereafter rapidly degenerated, to be replaced by Middle English in all its functions except its use in law. This volume shows that English–French bilingualism remained a central fact of the linguistic life of England well into the late medieval period, and gives detailed consideration to profiling what later Anglo-Norman was like, and how it functioned.
At the heart of our subject is a challenging paradox: if certain contemporary reports are to be believed, at one point early in the fourteenth century French looked like becoming the official language of England. Over two hundred years after the Norman Conquest, it had become adopted across virtually the whole range of written registers: prose and verse literature, technical writing, commerce, central- and local-government business, legal proceedings and private correspondence. Yet most authorities agree that by this time the descendants of the Norman conquerors of 1066 were no longer ethnically distinct from the native population, and hardly ever spoke French as a mother-tongue. Languages without native speakers are supposed to die, or else they survive, like Latin, as highly specialised formal written codes. However, French existed to a considerable extent as a spoken vernacular in later medieval England: even its continental detractors, who mocked it as ‘le faus franceis d’Engleterre’, derided specifically its spoken features. In short, the paradox is that French in England, conventionally referred to as ‘Anglo-Norman’, had few or no native speakers, yet was quite commonly spoken and enjoyed the status of a prestige written language.
To the extent that Anglo-Norman continued to be spoken outside royal and seigneurial court circles, this is likely to have been within particular specialised professional domains such as law and estate management, where we have technical manuals in Anglo-Norman written from the later thirteenth century onwards. As David Trotter's work emphasises, the textual record shows that French was in fact used across a whole range of contexts where accurate and efficient communication was essential, and for purposes where major financial and economic issues were at stake. How this state of affairs can be reconciled with the still commonly purveyed notion that Anglo-Norman was no more than ‘bad French’, imperfectly learned as a foreign language, remains unclear.
Frontmatter
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The Anglo-Norman Language and its Contexts
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Collection examining the Anglo-Norman language in a variety of texts and contexts, in military, legal, literary and other forms.
12 - The Transmission of Later Anglo-Norman: Some Syntactic Evidence
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The status of French in medieval England
At issue in this article is the linguistic competence of later Anglo-Norman users: whether their output profiles them as L2 speakers whose French was subject to L1 interference, or whether they should be seen as balanced bilinguals whose French was not usually influenced by English. This question matters as regards the status of Anglo-Norman in relation to other varieties of French: many earlier authorities ghettoised Anglo-Norman, considering it with Bruneau (1955) to have been ‘une langue à part’ because of the status it had of a second-language variety. This perspective was also adopted by Kibbee (1996: 7–11), who emphasised the ‘essential difference’ between Anglo- Norman and Continental French, citing Anglo-Norman gender errors and ‘special syntactic constructions’ that reflect English rather than French. ‘By the 13th and 14th centuries, [Anglo-Norman] shows its imminent death by exhibiting the standard features of a dying language’ (Kibbee 1996: 15). He cited among these ‘standard features’ a tendency for syntax to align itself with that of the dominant language, English in this case. Earlier commentators, notably Vising (1923), Meyer (1889), Pope (1934) and Tanquerey (1916), also observed a decline in the quality of French from c. 1250 onwards, so one might conclude that by that time Anglo-Norman was no more than an imperfectly learned second language, and can be disregarded as a French dialect. Berndt (1972: 354) followed this trend, claiming that later Anglo-Norman was ‘clearly a language learned at school’.
Yet in the field of Anglo-Norman studies the perils of uncritically following the assertions of earlier writers regarding the relationship between French and English in the medieval period have been made clear by Rothwell (1996), so some caution is in order. As Rothwell (2001) observed, if one followed the conventional textbook versions of the history of English, it is a surprise to find later Anglo-Norman existing at all, at least after 1362, since in that year the use of French in the law courts, supposedly its last remaining stronghold, is supposed to have been banned by royal decree. So it is by no means clear in what sense Anglo-Norman really was a dying language in the thirteenth to fourteenth centuries. Lusignan (2004) has pointed out that it was in the fourteenth century that Anglo-Norman seems to have experienced its period of most widespread use as a medium of communication in England: this development is surely hard to reconcile with the earlier conventional notion of degeneration into a poorly understood jargon used by speakers whose native language was English.
2 - Later Anglo-Norman as a Contact Variety of French?
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Summary
Introduction
Any assessment of the status of French in England in the later medieval period has to contend with a widespread perception that it was not really genuine French. Nineteenth-century editors set the tone, considering it was merely ‘une manière imparfaite de parler français’ (Paris and Bos 1881), ‘le mauvais français qu’on parlait, et surtout qu’on écrivait, en Angleterre’ (Meyer and Toulmin-Smith 1889). Pope (1934) followed suit, declaring that in its later stages Anglo-Norman became a ‘jargon’ barely understood by those who used it. This notion of deviance or incorrectness has generally been associated with the ‘foreign-language’ status of later Anglo-Norman, characterised by Pope (1934: 424) as a ‘period of degeneracy in which insular French … gradually became a dead language that … always had to be taught’. Later writers such as Price (1984) took the same line:
It is clear from the kind of French that was being written in England in the thirteenth and, even more so, in the fourteenth century that the writers had less than total command of the language … (it) was indeed a language in an advanced state of decline. Grammatically it was often little more than ‘bad French’… ‘Late Anglo-Norman is characterised by so many and such marked deviations from any other kind of French at the time as to lead one to the view that what we have before us is not just another authentic speaker French but incorrect French written by people for whom it was a foreign language and whose command of it was inadequate. (Price 1984: 224)
Kibbee (1996) similarly formulated the position in terms of an ‘essential difference’ between Continental and Insular French, which he located in the distinction between a mother tongue and a non-native language. He argued that apparent noun gender errors and syntactic constructions showing English influence provide evidence that, as time went on, Anglo-Norman became an imperfectly learned second language. With French specialists making such claims, it is no surprise to find historical linguists such as Thomason and Kaufman (1988) asserting that by the mid-thirteenth century there were ‘virtually no competent users of French’ in England.